Theories of Mass Communication

Early theories were based on the assumptions that mass media have enormous and direct influence upon society. But later researches provided evidence against any direct cause and effect relationship between the mass communication and society;rather they underline the importance of individual differences and personal influences on transmission, acceptance and retention of the message.

MEANING OF THEORIES & ANALYSIS

Fredrick S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm presented:The Authoritarian, Libertarian, Social Responsibility, and Soviet Communist Concepts of what the Press should be and do.

They presented the four major theories behind the functioning of the world's presses: (1) the Authoritarian theory, which developed in the late Renaissance and was based on the idea that truth is the product of a few wise men; (2) the Libertarian theory, which arose from the works of men like Milton, Locke, Mill,and Jefferson and avowed that the search for truth is one of man's natural rights;(3) the Social Responsibility theory of the modern day: equal radio and television time for political candidates, the obligations of the newspaper in a one-paper town,etc.; (4) the Soviet Communist theory, an expanded and more positive version of the old Authoritarian theory.

Fredrick S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm’s four Theories of the Press probably constitute the most well known attempt to clarify the link between mass media and the political society in modern world.

Since the theory was presented in 1963, it has been widely accepted and utilized by media scholars. Nevertheless, a critical evaluation shows that Siebert's theories are outdated and too simplistic to be useful in today's media research.

Mass media do not operate in a vacuum. This assertion is generally agreed upon,and has led researchers to study the relationship between mass media and the government.The first well-known attempt to clarify the link between mass media and the political society was introduced by Frederick S. Siebert in 1963, and presented in Four Theories of the Press by Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm. The purpose of the work was to establish and explain four normative theories that ought to illustrate the ‘press position’ in relation to its political environment. By "press" Siebert,means all the media of mass communication, including television, radio, and newspaper.Siebert's four theories (the authoritarian, the libertarian, the Soviet, and the social responsibility) are still acknowledged by many mass media researchers as the most proper categories to describe how different media systems operate in the world. Almost every article and book dealing with philosophical bases for  journalism has alluded to this book ‘ Four Theories of the Press’, commented on it,or quoted from it. It has definitely made an impact. There is, therefore, a need to evaluate the four theories analytically in order to find out if Siebert's approach still is the most functional. A critical evaluation shows that Siebert's theories, which seek to explain the relationship between mass media and the government, are outdated and too simplistic to be useful in today's media research.

Peterson, Wilbur, Schramm & Siebert’s four theories of press

(a) The Authoritarian Theory

According to Siebert, the authoritarian state system requires direct governmental control of the mass media. This system is especially easy to recognize in pre-democratic societies, where the government consists of a very limited and small ruling-class. The media in an authoritarian system are not allowed to print or  broadcast anything, which could undermine the established authority, and any offense to the existing political values is avoided. The authoritarian government may go to the step of punishing anyone who questions the state's ideology.

The fundamental assumption of the authoritarian system is that the government is infallible. Media professionals are therefore not allowed to have any independence within the media organization. Also foreign media are subordinate to the established authority, in that all imported media products are controlled by the state.

The relationship between the state and the media in an authoritarian system can be illustrated as such:

The Authoritarian theory of the press can be traced to the very beginning of  printing. At that time, truth was thought to reside in those who held power-that is,the governing agency. Thus there was strict control of the press through the licensing of printers by the throne. Censorship was practiced if the ruler thought that information should be withheld from the masses. Therefore, although the government did not necessarily own the press, it was looked on as being an advocate of the state. Today many nations will not admit that their countries are governed according to authoritarian principles, they publicly espouse libertarian concepts, but behind the scenes authoritarian practices are carried out.

This term was first used by Siebert refers to an arrangement in which the press is subordinated to state power and the interests of a ruling class. The theory justifies advance censorship and punishment for deviation from externally set guidelines.Unacceptable attack on authority, deviation from official policy, or offences against moral codes should be criminal offences. Under certain circumstances,media are subjected to authoritarian tendencies in democratic regimes as well,especially in times of war and during internal and external emergencies. Other media like film, video, etc are subjected to censorship. Even the press, which is free, lost its independence and freedom during the emergency (1975-77). The Authorities can and do use the provisions of official secrets act to deny free access to information, thereby hampering the freedom of press.

(b) The Libertarian Theory

Fredrick S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm’s go on to explain the libertarian theory, which is also called the free press theory. In contrast to the authoritarian theory, the libertarian view rests on the idea that the individual should be free to publish whatever he or she likes. Its history traces back to the 17th century thinker John Milton, who asserted that human beings inevitably choose the best ideas and values. In the libertarian system, attacks on the government's policies are fully accepted and even encouraged. Moreover, there should be norestrictions on import or export of media messages across the national frontiers.Moreover, journalists and media professionals ought to have full autonomy withinthe media organization.It is hard to find intact examples of libertarian media systems in today's world. TheU.S. will in many aspects come close, but this country's media system has have tendencies of authoritarianism as well.

As this illustration shows, there is no explicit connection between the government and the media in the libertarian theory:

Today ‘the open marketplace of ideas’ and the ‘self-righting process’ define the boundaries of the libertarian theory of the press. In the seventeenth century John Milton defended the concepts of reason and the moral integrity of man in telling right from wrong, good from bad, and truth from falsehood in a powerful argument for intellectual freedom. Other exponents of this philosophy were John Stuart,Thomas Jefferson and other who believed in freedom of expression, rationalism, and natural rights. They saw as the press’s function to inform, to sell, to entertain, to uphold the truth, and to keep check on the government. Press ownership in countries espousing the libertarian philosophy is likely to be private and should be free from defamation, obscenity, impropriety and wartime sedition.Countries practicing the libertarian philosophy today are the United States, Great Britain, and other western European nations. Other theories related to libertarian theory are the social responsibility theory and the objective theory of the press.

Libertarian theory is based on the fundamental right of an individual to freedom of expression, which is regarded as the main legitimating principle for print media in liberal democracies. In its simple form, it prescribes that an individual should be free to publish what he or she likes, it is thus extension of other rights to hold opinions freely, to express them, to assemble and organize with others. The free press theory needs no elaboration as is evident from the first amendment to the American Constitution, which states that ‘congress shall make no law…abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, it is thus simply an absolute right of the citizen’.

But the application of press freedom has hardly been straightforward. Milton, Stuart Mill and many others argued that if freedom is abused to the extent of threatening good morals and the authority of the state, it must be restrained. According to de Sola Pool (1973), ‘no nation will definitely tolerate a freedom of the press that serves to divided the country and to open the floodgates of criticism against the freely chosen government that leads its’. Moreover, much difficulty has arisen because press freedom has become identified with property rights (private ownership) and freedom from interference in the market. The free press theory or the libertarian theory thus protects the owners of media but fails to give equal expression to the rights of editors and journalists or of the audiences.

(c) The Soviet Communist/Workers Theory

Apparent from its name, the Soviet Communist/ Workers Theory is closely tied to a specific ideology; the communist. Siebert traces the roots of this theory back to the 1917 Russian Revolution based on the postulates of Marx and Engels. Themedia organizations in this system were to serve the interests of the working class and not intended to be privately owned.

An illustration of the Soviet system would appear to be the same as the authoritarian model, in that both theories acknowledge the government as superior to the media institutions:

However, there is a major difference between the two theories that needs to be clarified: The mass media in the Soviet model are expected to be self-regulatory with regard to the content of their messages. Also, the Soviet theory differs from the authoritarian theory in that the media organizations have a certain responsibility to meet the wishes of their audience. Still, the underlying standard is to provide a complete and objective view of the world according to Marxist-Leninist principles.

Today, the name of this theory is only of historical interest. Beginning in the mid-eighties and continuing after the fall of the Soviet Union, Russia has performed a mass media model closer to the social responsibility principle. The clearest current example of the Soviet media theory is how the media function in China, where the communist government controls TV, radio, and newspapers.

The Soviet Theory is also called as ‘the communist media theory’. Just as the social responsibility theory is an outgrowth of the libertarian theory, soviet-communist theory is an outgrowth of the authoritarian theory. However, whereas according to the authoritarian theory the press resides outside the government, in the soviet media theory the press and the state are held to be one. The main purpose of the soviet-media theory is to ensure the success and continuance of the soviet socialist system and to promote the objectives of the soviet socialist party. This System is found mainly in the Soviet Union and other communist countries.

Russian media was reorganized after the revolution of 1917 and this theory is derived mainly from basic tenets of Marx and Engels. It envisages media to be under the control of the working class whose interest they are meant to serve. Private Ownership of the press or other media is ruled out. The media must serve positive functions in society relating to information, education, motivation, and mobilization.They must support progressive movements in the country and abroad.

The media according to this theory are subject to the ultimate control of the state and are integrated with other instruments of political life. Within these limits, the media are expected to be self-regulatory. They must

• Act with responsibility

• Evolve and follow norms of professional conduct, and

• Respond to people’s needs and aspirations.The media as per this theory are not subject to arbitrary interference as in the case of the authoritarian theory.

(d) The Social Responsibility Theory

An American initiative in the late forties brought forth the  social responsibility theory. Realizing that the market had failed to fulfill the promise that press freedom would reveal the truth, The Commission on Freedom of the Press provided a model in which the media had certain obligations to society. These Obligations were expressed in the words "informativeness, truth, accuracy,objectivity, and balance".

Siebert writes that the goal of the social responsibility system is that media as a whole is pluralized, indicating "a reflection of the diversity of society as well as access to various points of view".As opposed to the libertarian theory, the social responsibility principle is to provide an entrance to different mass media to minority groups. The journalist is accountable to his audience as well as to the government.

Most media systems in Western Europe today come close to the social responsibility theory. An illustration of the theory puts the mass media and the government on the same level, signifying an interaction where both parts are allowed to criticize the other:

The social responsibility theory is an extension of the libertarian theory in that the press recognizes that it has a responsibility to society to carry out its essential functions. The social responsibility theory ascribes basically the same six functions to the press as the libertarian theory:

1.Providing information, discussion, and debate on public affairs

2.Instructing and informing the public to make it capable of self government

3.Protecting the rights of the individual against the government through its watchdog function

4.Maintaining the economic equilibrium of the system by bringing together  buyer, seller, and advertiser

5.Providing entertainment

6.Remaining independent of outside pressures by maintaining its own economic self-sufficiency.

The basic principles of the social responsibility theory uphold conflict resolution through discussion; there is high regard for public opinion, consumer action, and professional ethics and jealous guard over private rights and important social interests. This theory emerged in the United States in the twentieth century, and it is evidenced today in the Anglo-American nations.

The social responsibility theory is based on the assumption that media serve essential functions in society. Therefore, it should accept and fulfill certain obligations to the society. These obligations are to be met by setting high professional standards in communication of information, truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance. In accepting and discharging these obligations, the media should be self-regulatory within the framework of law and established institutions. In the public interest, the media should underplay that news which might lead to crime,violence, and social tension or cause offence to ethnic or religious minorities. The Media should be pluralist, should reflect the diversity of their society and allow access to various points of view, including the right to reply.

(e) Other Theories Development Media

Development media or Development Communication refers to a spectrum of communication processes, strategies and principles within the field of international development, aimed at improving the conditions and quality of life of people struggling with underdevelopment and marginalization. Reflective of the field's historical evolution, Development communication is characterized by conceptual flexibility and diversity in the application of communication techniques used to address the problems of development.Some approaches in the field include: information dissemination and education, behavior change, social marketing, social mobilization, media advocacy,communication for social change, and participatory communication. Development Communication is for the betterment of the society though raised from a particular group but affect the whole mass for better.

The limited application of the four established theories of the press to the third world countries, which are vastly different from each other and also from western countries, led to the birth of a new approach whereby communication is use to carry out development tasks. These tasks are carried out in line with nationally established policy. The best source for information on this issue is the report of the UNESCO sponsored international commission for the study of communication problems.According to it, some common conditions of developing countries that limit the potential benefits of other theories here are:

• The absence of communication infrastructure

• Dependence on the developed world for hardware and software

• The commitment of these societies to economic, political and social development as a primary national task

• The developing countries awareness of their similar identity and interest in international politics.Because of these different conditions, the developing countries overriding objectives would be to use mass media for nation building. In the interest of this task of national development, the freedom of the media and of journalists needs to be curbed to an extent. The major thrust of development communication theorists has been on the use of media as a support to national development programmes like poverty alleviation, population control, literacy drive, employment generation schemes, etc. But the effectiveness of this theory depends on how governments exercise their right to restrict freedom or to intervene in media operations and how they use devices of censorship, subsidy and direct control.

Democratic Participant Theory

This is the most recent addition to the list of normative theories; is relevant to thedeveloped liberal societies but has some elements of the development media theory.Mc Quail notes that it is most difficult to formulate this theory ‘partly because itlacks full legitimization and incorporation into media institutions and partly becausesome of its tenets are already to be found in some of the other theories’. In his opinion, this theory represents a challenge to the reigning theories and merits separate identification.The main feature of the democratic participant theory relates to the needs, interests,and aspirations of the active receiver in a political society. It is concerned with the right to information, the right to answer back, the right to use the means of communication for interaction in the small-scale settings of the community. The Theory favors:

• Multiplicity of media

• Smallness of scale, of operation and

• Horizontality of communication at all levels. It opposes uniform, centralized,high cost, highly professionalized and state-controlled media.

It is argued that the media should exist primarily for the audiences and not for mediaorganizations and professionals.