Special Articles, Analysis, Backgrounder Writing

A special feature article may be defined as a detailed presentation of facts in an interesting form adapted to rapid reading, for the purpose of entertaining or informing the average person. It usually deals with (1) recent news that is of sufficient importance to warrant elaboration; (2) timely or seasonal topics not directly connected with news; or (3) subjects of general interest that have no immediate connection with current events.

Although frequently concerned with news, the special feature article is more than a mere news story. It aims to supplement the bare facts of the news report by giving more detailed information regarding the persons, places, and circumstances that appear in the news columns. News must be published as fast as it develops, with only enough explanatory material to make it intelligible. The special article, written with the perspective afforded by an interval of a few days or weeks, fills in the bare outlines of the hurried news sketch with the life and color that make the picture complete.

The special feature article must not be confused with the type of news story called the "feature," or "human interest," story. The latter undertakes to present minor incidents of the day's news in an entertaining form. Like the important news story, it is published immediately after the incident occurs. Its purpose is to appeal to newspaper readers by bringing out the humorous and pathetic phases of events that have little real news value. It exemplifies, therefore, merely one distinctive form of news report.

The special feature article differs from the older type of magazine article, not so much in subject as in form and style. The most marked difference lies in the fact that it supplements the recognized methods of literary and scientific exposition with the more striking devices of narrative, descriptive, and dramatic writing.

Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. It is the examination and evaluation of the relevant information to select the best course of action from among various alternatives.

 Backgrounder Writing
The background information provides sufficient content to the reader so they can understand the purpose of the experiment, the design and the interpretation of the results. The writer must research the background information and properly cite (APA documentation) all sources used. A brief summary of the purpose and the experimental design should be included at the end.

a. provides a general overview of the topic of study in the first paragraph to introduce the main idea(s)
b. includes clear, focused, accurate and detailed information to understand the science investigated during the study in the middle paragraph(s)
c. provides cited support from external resources
d. previews the experiment in the last paragraph by summarizing the purpose and method for data collection.

Typically 3 paragraphs, the first paragraph is a very broad and general look at your subject, then getting increasingly more specific to your own experiment in the second, third or fourth paragraph.

Remember not to use "I, our, we" use "The experiment", not "My experiment".

Opinion surveys: Concept, Tools & Techniques

An opinion poll, sometimes simply referred to as a poll, is a survey of public opinion from a particular sample. Opinion polls are usually designed to represent the opinions of a population by conducting a series of questions and then extrapolating generalities in ratio or within confidence intervals.

Opinion surveys are the types of surveys involving the determination of the public's opinion on certain issues. Opinion poll surveys are usually administered to discover the public's opinion about different political matters such as congressional bills, senatorial elections, or presidential ratings.

The Advantages of Opinion Poll Surveys
Opinion surveys are representations of what the general public thinks or feels about certain issues. The data collected from opinion poll surveys have a strong influence on the views of other people. If opinion poll surveys reveal that candidate A is stronger than candidate B, then there is a huge possibility that more people are going to vote for candidate A.

The Disadvantages of Opinion Poll Surveys
A disadvantage of opinion poll surveys is the public's tendency to go bias. In opinion poll surveys, a huge number of respondents have the tendency to support the "leading option" indicated by the researchers. For example, a respondent is asked about who is more likely to win an election. If the researcher reveals which candidate is currently leading in the opinion poll surveys, there is a bigger chance that the respondent will choose the "leading option" as the likely winner. Other disadvantages of opinion poll surveys include vulnerability to sampling error and selection bias.

The Model Types of Opinion Poll Surveys
There are two different ways of administering opinion poll surveys: via telecommunication lines or via person-to-person contact. Some researchers administer opinion poll surveys via the Internet. Respondents can just visit the websites where the opinion poll surveys are posted and they can pick out what they like best among the given options. Other researchers still practise the traditional person-to-person contact wherein they personally ask for the respondent's opinion on the matter.

Sample and polling methods
Opinion polls for many years were maintained through telecommunications or in person-to-person contact. Methods and techniques vary, though they are widely accepted in most areas. Verbal, ballot, and processed types can be conducted efficiently, contrasted with other types of surveys, systematics, and complicated matrices beyond previous orthodox procedures. Opinion polling developed into popular applications through popular thought, although response rates for some surveys declined. Also, the following has also led to differentiating results: Some polling organizations, such as Angus Reid Public Opinion, YouGov and Zogby use Internet surveys, where a sample is drawn from a large panel of volunteers, and the results are weighted to reflect the demographics of the population of interest. In contrast, popular web polls draw on whoever wishes to participate, rather than a scientific sample of the population, and are therefore not generally considered professional.

Polls can be used in the public relation field as well. In the early 1920s Public Relation experts described their work as a two way street. Their job would be to present the misinterpreted interests of large institutions to public. They would also gauge the typically ignored interests of the public through polls.

Benchmark polls
A benchmark poll is generally the first poll taken in a campaign. It is often taken before a candidate announces their bid for office but sometimes it happens immediately following that announcement after they have had some opportunity to raise funds. This is generally a short and simple survey of likely voters.

A benchmark poll serves a number of purposes for a campaign, whether it is a political campaign or some other type of campaign. First, it gives the candidate a picture of where they stand with the electorate before any campaigning takes place. If the poll is done prior to announcing for office the candidate may use the poll to decide whether or not they should even run for office. Secondly, it shows them where their weaknesses and strengths are in two main areas. The first is the electorate. A benchmark poll shows them what types of voters they are sure to win, those who they are sure to lose, and everyone in-between those two extremes. This lets the campaign know which voters are persuadable so they can spend their limited resources in the most effective manner. Second, it can give them an idea of what messages, ideas, or slogans are the strongest with the electorate.

Brushfire polls
Brushfire Polls are polls taken during the period between the Benchmark Poll and Tracking Polls. The number of Brushfire Polls taken by a campaign is determined by how competitive the race is and how much money the campaign has to spend. These polls usually focus on likely voters and the length of the survey varies on the number of messages being tested.

Brushfire polls are used for a number of purposes. First, it lets the candidate know if they have made any progress on the ballot, how much progress has been made, and in what demographics they have been making or losing ground. Secondly, it is a way for the campaign to test a variety of messages, both positive and negative, on themselves and their opponent(s). This lets the campaign know what messages work best with certain demographics and what messages should be avoided. Campaigns often use these polls to test possible attack messages that their opponent may use and potential responses to those attacks. The campaign can then spend some time preparing an effective response to any likely attacks. Thirdly, this kind of poll can be used by candidates or political parties to convince primary challengers to drop out of a race and support a stronger candidate.

Tracking polls
A tracking poll is a poll repeated at intervals generally averaged over a trailing window. For example, a weekly tracking poll uses the data from the past week and discards older data.

A caution is that estimating the trend is more difficult and error-prone than estimating the level – intuitively, if one estimates the change, the difference between two numbers X and Y, then one has to contend with the error in both X and Y – it is not enough to simply take the difference, as the change may be random noise. For details, see t-test. A rough guide is that if the change in measurement falls outside the margin of error, it is worth attention.

Opinion writing : Concept & Scope

Most newspapers publish an opinion editorial page next to the editorial page. The newspaper’s staff, syndicated columnists, or national and community opinion leaders often write the articles. However, the editors of most newspapers welcome the opinions of local citizens and leaders in order to add depth of perspective to their publication.

Although most newspapers keep an open mind in determining the content of their opinion editorials, some newspapers will be more inclined to publish an opinion piece on conservation funding than others. That’s why it is important to research the newspaper in advance to understand what kind of editorials it publishes, as well as what issues are covered in the stories. Remember that a newspaper will not publish a story unless it feels it represents a unique or different perspective.

When you have decided to write an opinion editorial, arrange a meeting with the opinion editorial page editor to discuss your ideas and the subject you wish to write about for the newspaper. If they agree to publish your editorial, make sure you get the details on how long the story should be and vehemently observe all deadlines. Finally, if the story is printed, write a thank you note to the editor and keep in touch to update them with additional information on the conservation funding campaign.

What to Say in Opinion Editorial:

Give a concise, but thorough, background on the issue or campaign. Remember, the majority of people reading the story may not have an understanding of the issue. Give a thoughtful, yet brief, background on the issue before venturing into more details of the campaign.

Strengthen your message by citing national trends that show support for your issue. Some factors that favor supporting parks and recreation include: a strong economy, the recent successful passage of open space initiatives in the previous tow election years, the bipartisan support for the issue, the strength and diversity of the constituency, and the broad range of benefits parks and recreation provides for Americans.

Localize the story. Although parks and recreation is very broad and touches lives all across the U.S., the audience for your opinion editorial will want to know how the program affects their community. Provide the reader with specific examples of well-known local parks, recreations centers, and wildlife refuges and give some examples of how this legislation can benefit the community in the future.

Highlight the success of congressional support for the issue. An opinion editorial allows you to stress the importance of support for the issue from both local and national elected officials. For example, draw attention to the fact that more than 315 U.S. House of Representatives voted in favor of the Conservation and Reinvestment Act (CARA, H.R. 701) last year.

Get the right individual to sign the opinion editorial. A local newspaper is more apt to allow a community leader to author an editorial. Do you want the focus of the article to be about recreation? Then it makes sense during your grassroots constituency-building to find a local athlete or coach who may have some name recognition or standing in the community. Other potential authors could be local “smart growth” leaders, recreation businesses, historic preservationists, wildlife activists or managers, local elected officials, or other members of the community who are recognized for a specific skill or leadership trait.

You may be required to write an essay that is based on your own personal opinion about a controversial topic. Depending on your objective, your composition could be any length, from a short letter to the editor, to a medium-sized speech, or a long research paper. But every piece should contain some basic steps and elements.

1. Collect research to support your opinion. Make sure that your supporting statements match the type of composition you are writing. For example, your evidence will vary from observations (for a letter to the editor) to trustworthy statistics (for a research paper).

2. Acknowledge the previous opinions or arguments that have been made.

"Many students have complained that the dress code implemented by our new headmaster restricts their rights to freedom of expression."

3. Use a transition statement that shows how your opinion adds to the argument or suggests those previous statements and arguments are incomplete or faulty.

Follow up with a statement that expresses your opinion.

"While I agree that the regulations do hamper my ability to express my individualism, I think the economic burden that the new code brings about is a bigger concern."

4.Be careful not to be too sarcastic:

"Many students come from low-income families and they simply don't have the resources to buy new clothing to suit the headmaster's fashion whims."

This statement contains a bit of a sour note. It would only make your argument less professional-sounding. This statement says enough:

"Many students come from low-income families and they simply don't have the resources to buy new clothing in short notice."

5. Next, list supporting evidence to back up your position.

"The recent increase in fees has already led to a decrease in enrollment."

"Some of my friends are struggling to purchase necessities, due to the rising costs."

Computer-assisted web interviewing

Computer-assisted web interviewing (CAWI) is a Internet surveying technique in which the interviewer follows a script provided in a website. The questionnaires are made in a program for creating web interviews. The program allows for the questionnaire to contain pictures, audio and video clips, links to different web pages, etc. The website is able to customize the flow of the questionnaire based on the answers provided, as well as information already known about the participant. It's considered to be a cheaper way of surveying since you don't need to use people to hold surveys unlike Computer-assisted telephone interviewing. With the increasing use of the Internet, online questionnaires have become a popular way of collecting information. The design of an online questionnaire often has an effect on the quality of data gathered. There are many factors in designing an online questionnaire; guidelines, available question formats, administration, quality and ethical issues should be reviewed. Online questionnaires should be seen as a subset of a wider-range of online research methods.

Using online questionnaires

There are several reasons why someone would utilize online questionnaires as their preferred testing method. A few of the advantages and disadvantages of this method have been summarized below:

Advantages

• The administrator has greater flexibility in displaying questions. Questions can be displayed with:
• Check boxes
• Pull down menus
• Pop up menus
• Help screens
• sub menus
• An online forum allows responses to be received more quickly from subjects.
• This method is also cheaper to administer, as there are no costs associated with purchasing paper or other materials for printing. Postage costs are also mitigated.
• Since data is collected into a central database, the time for analysis is subsequently reduced.
• It is easier to correct errors on an online questionnaire, since the administrator does not have to reprint all the questionnaires for distribution.

Disadvantages

• Not everyone has access to the Internet, so the response rate is limited.
• Many people are not receptive to completing questionnaires online.
• Studies indicate that the demographic that responds to online questionnaire invitations are generally biased to younger people.

Responses to online questionnaires

Response rates are frequently quite low[citation needed] and there is a danger that they will continue to drop due to over-surveying of web-users.

Jon Krosnick argues that the following three factors determine the successfulness of the questionnaire and the likelihood of achieving decent levels of response.

1. Respondent ability
2. Respondent motivation
3. Task difficulty/questionnaire design

Bosnjak and Tuten argue that there are at least seven ways in which online survey's are responded to.

They establish the following typology

1. Complete Responders are those respondents who view all questions and answer all questions.
2. Unit nonresponders are those individuals who do not participate in the survey. There are two possible variations to the unit nonresponder. Such an individual could be technically-hindered from participation, or he or she may purposefully withdraw after the welcome screen is displayed, but prior to viewing any questions.
3. Answering Drop-Outs consist of individuals who provide answers to those questions displayed, but quit prior to completing the survey.
4. Lurkers view all of the questions in the survey, but do not answer any of the questions.
5. Lurking Drop-Outs represent a combination of 3 and 4. Such a participant views some of the questions without answering, but also quits the survey prior to reaching the end.
6. Item nonresponders view the entire questionnaire, but only answer some of the questions.
7. Item non-responding drop-outs represent a mixture of 3 and 6. Individuals displaying this response behavior view some of the questions, answer some but not all of the questions viewed, and also quit prior to the end of the survey.

Administration of online questionnaires

Once the questionnaire is designed, it must be administered to the appropriate sample population for data collection. Attracting the appropriate target audience often requires advertisement. There are various methods used to attract participants

• bulletin boards
• mass emails
• advertisements in commercial areas
• mail
• monetary incentives
• discounts on company products

This usually helps in attracting willing participant which ultimately provide better quality data as opposed to reluctant participants.

Location of administration for the online questionnaire may be a factor in the administration if a specific environment is required. A quiet environment may be needed for questions, which require a certain amount of concentration. The questionnaire may need to be administered in a secluded environment to protect sensitive information provided by the participant. Security measures in the software may also need to be added in these cases. In contrast, online questionnaires may also be very informal, relaxed and can be conducted in the comfort of someone’s home.

Quality of online questionnaires

Questionnaire quality can be measured through the value of the data obtained and participant satisfaction. To maintain a high quality questionnaire length, conciseness and question sequence should be considered. First, questionnaires should only be as long as they need to be. Conciseness can be achieved through removing redundant and irrelevant questions, which can add frustration to the participant, but not value to the research. Finally, placing questions in a logical sequence also gives the participant a better mental map as he/she is filling out the questionnaire. Moving randomly between subjects and having answers in a non-intuitive sequence can confuse the participant.

Preparation for Interview, Types of Interviews

Preparation for Interview

Preparing for interview can be something complex or even scary for some people but it’s simple and easy. You just have to follow the following guidelines and you’ll be all ready to give a bunch of interviews with confidence.

Interview Tip 1: Plan ahead

Do a little homework! Research the company and the position if possible, as well, the people you will meet with at the interview. Review your work experiences. Be ready to support past career accomplishments with specific information targeted toward the companies needs. Have your facts ready.

Interview Tip 2: Role play

Once you have finished studying, begin role playing (rehearsing). Try to practice with a person who has attended interviews or who conducts interviews. Practice with the general questions normally asked in interviews. Write down answers if it helps to make your presentation more concise. Try to keep your answers to the information your new employer will want to know.

Interview Tip 3: Eye contact

Maintain eye contact with your interviewer. Show you want the job with your interest. Remember, more than 95% of all communication is nonverbal. Use your body language to show the interviewer that you are interested in the position.

Interview Tip 4: Be positive

In particular, avoid negative comments about past employers. When asked about your weaknesses, present them in an action-oriented manner, for example, if you feel you are impatient, you can say “I am extremely result-oriented and therefore I tend to lose patience”.

Interview Tip 5: Adapt

Listen and adapt. Be sensitive to the style of the interviewer. Pay attention to those details of dress, office furniture, and general decor which will afford helpful clues to assist you in tailoring your presentation.

Interview Tip 6: Relate

Try to relate your answers to the interviewer and his or her company. Focus on achievements relevant to the position. This can only be done if you have researched the company you are interviewing for well in advance.

Interview Tip 7: Encourage

Encourage the interviewer to share information about his or her company. Demonstrate your interest by asking questions about the company and your role within it. Avoid asking questions on remuneration.

Types of interviews

• Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview the interviewer “goes with the flow”.

• General interview guide approach - intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.

• Standardized, open-ended interview - the same open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.

• Closed, fixed-response interview - all interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.

Interview: Concept, Scope & Writing Skills

An interview is a conversation between two people (the interviewer and the interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee.

Interview is a systematic oral technique for obtaining data, directly from an individual. It is a conversation between two or more people, through which information are collected on a particular subject.

In the words of Dr. S. M. Amunuzzaman, “interview is a very systematic method hy which a person enters deeply into the life of even a stranger and can bring out needed information and data for the research purpose.

Thill and Bovee said that, “ an interview is any planned conversation with a specific purpose involving two or more people”.

Thus it can be stated that interview is an organized or planned conversation with a view to explore the unknown information from the interviewee.

Interview as a method for qualitative research

"Definition" - The qualitative research interview seeks to describe and the meanings of central themes in the life world of the subjects. The main task in interviewing is to understand the meaning of what the interviewees say.(Kvale,1996)

Aspects of qualitative research interviews

• Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on what the interviewee says.
• Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires.
• In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the interviewee.
• Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow up questions.
• Interviews are generally easier for the interviewee, especially if what is sought are opinions and/or impressions.
• Interviews are time consuming and they are resource intensive.
• The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement instrument and interviewer has to be well trained in how to respond to any contingency.

Stages of interview investigation

• Thematizing, the why and what of the investigation
• Designing, plan the design of the study
• Interviewing, conduct the interview based on a guide
• Transcribing, prepare the interview material for analysis
• Analyzing, decide on the purpose, the topic, the nature and methods of analysis that are appropriate
• Verifying, ascertain the validity of the interview findings
• Reporting, communicate findings of the study based on academic criteria.