Continuing Evolution, Interactive Media; 24x7 media

Continuing Evolution
There are many terms used to denote the interactive nature of digital applications—multimedia, new media and interactive design are common examples. Because the interactive sector has quickly evolved through phases, the terms have often been coined to reflect a phase that then gets surpassed. A quick historical overview will give the background that causes confusion for those joining the dynamic sector.

The word Multimedia used to have a specialist connotation for the audio-visual industry. Uses of multiple or mixed media in such analogue systems as slide shows or overhead projectors were known as ‘multimedia’. But this specialist use was superseded by the arrival of digital technology. Integrated digital media was termed interactive multimedia and usually shortened to plain multimedia for convenience.

The need to differentiate between analogue (linear) and digital (interactive) uses of media spawned other terms like New Media and Digital Media. The term ‘New media’ carries it’s own problems as the media associated with the original term are replaced with newer instances of the ‘new’. Obsolescence is endemic in the interactive arena. However, the term remains in use although Digital Media and Interactive Media are more stable terms and are being used increasingly. The term Interactive Media highlights the interactive connotation that is a key characteristic of the difference between the older style media and the new .

‘Social media’ has evolved to describe the more recent success of digital social sites such as Facebook and MySpace, and would include the phenomenon of mobile texting, especially Twitter. The success of these built on the social aspects of ‘blogs’ on the Internet. The more recent social sites are interactive but even the denotation of interactivity has become ‘accepted’ and dropped so that social media with its inherent interactivity is considered the norm. When the Web quickly became the largest hardware platform, and development for it became the most common form of interactive development, the emphasis on ‘media’ was dropped in a similar way.

This may have been because the capacity for using media other than text on the Web was limited at that time. Skill sets such as Web Design, and Web Development came to the fore and these more specific terms overshadowed the more general terms like Digital Media and Interactive Media.

The irony is that ‘multimedia’ was the preferred term used by telcos (telecommunications companies) because when they entered the interactive arena they did not have any previous use of the term and did not find it confusing. That has changed now. The term ‘apps’ meaning ‘applications’ has taken over since the development of ‘apps’ for mobile phones and has been
popularised amongst the whole use community, rather than just being used by some programmers as a shorthand.

In the wider technological context, terms like ICT (Information and Communications Technologies—favoured in the education sector), the Digital Revolution, and Convergence began to be used in an attempt to define the pervasive changes that interactive technologies were causing within traditional business sectors. They were used in a strategic way, since as soon as a particular delivery channel is mentioned—DVD, iTV, Web or mobile for example—the emphasis shifts from trends to specific forms of production. This shift in perspective is important because it explains why some people see connections across forms of digital media and skill
sets while others only relate to a particular area of specialism. This will be developed further during this paper.

At the moment the strategic buzz word remains ‘Broadband’. This refers to an upgrade in the communications infrastructure needed to allow faster more media-rich access to digital content and, as we have seen with other terms, its exact meaning has evolved; becoming ever faster over the years.

Interactive Media
Interactive media normally refers to products and services on digital computer-based systems which respond to the user’s actions by presenting content such as text, graphics, animation, video, audio, games, etc.

Interactive media is the integration of digital media including combinations of electronic text, graphics, moving images, and sound, into a structured digital computerized environment that allows people to interact with the data for appropriate purposes. The digital environment can include the Internet, telecoms and interactive digital television.

No wonder it is difficult for new entrants to understand. The important concepts to hold on to are ‘interactive’ and ‘media’ across a range of ‘delivery channels’ or ‘platforms’.

Terminology
Though the word media is plural, the term is often used as a singular noun.

Interactive media is related to the concepts interaction design, new media, interactivity, human computer interaction, cyber culture, digital culture, and includes specific cases such as, for example, interactive television, interactive narrative, interactive advertising, algorithmic art, video games, social media, ambient intelligence, virtual reality and augmented reality.

An essential feature of interactivity is that it is mutual: user and machine each take a more or less active role (see interaction). Most interactive computing systems are for some human purpose and interact with humans in human contexts. Manovich complains that ‘In relation to computer-based media, the concept of interactivity is a tautology. .... Therefore, to call computer media “interactive” is meaningless – it simply means stating the most basic fact about computers.’. Nevertheless the term is useful to denote an identifiable body of practices and technologies.

Interactive media are an instance of a computational method influenced by the sciences of cybernetics, autopoiesis and system theories, and challenging notions of reason and cognition, perception and memory, emotions and affection.

Any form of interface between the end user/audience and the medium may be considered interactive. Interactive media is not limited to electronic media or digital media. Board games, pop-up books, game books, flip books and constellation wheels are all examples of printed interactive media. Books with a simple table of contents or index may be considered interactive due to the non-linear control mechanism in the medium, but are usually considered non-interactive since the majority of the user experience is non-interactive sequential reading.

What is the extent of the interactive media revolution?
Because there are many people involved across all sections of the information industries, media and computer programming together with telecommunications and broadcasting, it is difficult to take an overview.

It used to be that each represented a minority within its own sector. Online training development was seen as part of the traditional training specialism although it embraced new skills, production methods and business models. Interactive broadcasting fulfilled the same function for the broadcast industry. Online editing of web site content was the new branch of journalism and publishing. Interactive law, interactive graphics, interactive health and so on followed the same pattern. They shared the important characteristic of being interactive change agents within their areas.

Change Agents are people with the vision and skills to implement a change in organizational culture or business practice. Now, the digital revolution has quietly pervaded all business areas and specialisms. It is integrated into each role. All people are expected to have a basic mastery of using interactive media platforms for their jobs. Many need to learn how to use more specialist applications within their work. More people in management roles are expected to be able to direct, coordinate, conceive and manage the development or updates to digital programs
through internal or external teams.

The digital revolution has affected all facets of life. Each of the specialisms had a digital inroad created by the change agents. But one of the key characteristics of change is that it causes resistance from the traditionalists. They can delay change and even stifle it by building barriers. They tend to have the upper-hand in influence within their own sector and even higher levels such as government and other administrations. Their traditional mindsets work, often unconsciously, against the new ways of thinking that don’t fit into what have become the accepted categories. Education and training can help to ensure wider understanding and acceptance. Change agents needed protecting and nurturing within organizations and discipline specialisms as the digital revolution progressed. The traditionalists lack credibility with the change agents because of the mindset clash—and then so much more hinges on this communication barrier.

Convergence Media : The Boom, The Bust and The Revival

The term, media convergence came up at the recent InDesign User Group in the context of developing interactive digital media magazines for the iPad and other upcoming media tables.  In broad strokes, it is the blending of multiple media forms into one platform for purposes of delivering a dynamic experience.

The most succinct definition of what media convergence  came from a university FAQ for a media classes.  The following are definitions that I responded to.

• Media convergence is the merging of mass communication outlets – print, television, radio, the Internet along with portable and interactive technologies through various digital media platforms.
• Media convergence allows mass media professionals to tell stories and present information and entertainment using a variety of media.
• Converged communication provides multiple tools for storytelling, allowing consumers to select level of interactivity while self-directing content delivery.

Convergence generally means the intersection of old and new media. Jenkins states that convergence is, "the flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and the migratory behaviour of media audiences."

Media convergence is not just a technological shift or a technological process, it also includes shifts within the industrial, cultural, and social paradigms that encourage the consumer to seek out new information. Convergence, simply put, is how individual consumers interact with others on a social level and use various media platforms to create new experiences, new forms of media and content that connect us socially, and not just to other consumers, but to the corporate producers of media in ways that have not been as readily accessible in the past.

Advances in technology bring the ability for technological convergence that Rheingold believes can alter the "social-side effects," in that "the virtual, social and physical world are colliding, merging and coordinating."

It was predicted in the 1990s that a digital revolution would take place, and that old media would be pushed to one side by new media. Broadcasting is increasingly being replaced by the Internet, enabling consumers all over the world the freedom to access their preferred media content more easily and at a more available rate than ever before.

However, when the dot com bubble of the 1990s suddenly popped, that poured cold water over the talk of such a digital revolution. In today's society, the idea of media convergence has once again emerged as a key point of reference as newer as well as established media companies attempt to visualize the future of the entertainment industry. If this revolutionary digital paradigm shift presumed that old media would be increasingly replaced by new media, the convergence paradigm that is currently emerging suggests that new and old media would interact in more complex ways than previously predicted. The paradigm shift that followed the digital revolution assumed that new media was going to change everything. When the dot com market crashed, there was a tendency to imagine that nothing had changed. The real truth lay somewhere in between as there were so many aspects of the current media environment to take into consideration. Many industry leaders are increasingly reverting to media convergence as a way of making sense in an era of disorientating change. In that respect, media convergence in theory is essentially an old concept taking on a new meaning.

Media convergence, in reality, is more than just a shift in technology. It alters relationships between industries, technologies, audiences, genres and markets. Media convergence changes the rationality media industries operate in, and the way that media consumers process news and entertainment. Media convergence is essentially a process and not an outcome, so no single black box controls the flow of media. With proliferation of different media channels and increasing portability of new telecommunications and computing technologies, we have entered into an era where media constantly surrounds us.

Media convergence requires that media companies rethink existing assumptions about media from the consumer's point of view, as these affect marketing and programming decisions. Media producers must respond to newly empowered consumers.

Conversely, it would seem that hardware is instead diverging whilst media content is converging. Media has developed into brands that can offer content in a number of forms. Two examples of this are Star Wars and The Matrix. Both are films, but are also books, video games, cartoons, and action figures. Branding encourages expansion of one concept, rather than the creation of new ideas. In contrast, hardware has diversified to accommodate media convergence. Hardware must be specific to each function.

Changing media Scenario : Consumers Need and Demand

The media and Information Technology (IT) scenario has undergone a radical change in the recent past in India as it has happened elsewhere in the world. The change is both quantitative as well as qualitative. It is also observed that the gap between invention of new technology in the Western world and its use in India is also reducing day by day. Earlier technologies took comparatively longer time to develop roots in the country. But now days, soon after a new technology is developed anywhere in the world, it starts getting used in India too.

The change in the media or IT scenario is due to several factors:

• Rapid growth of technology, and increased reach and access
• Technological developments and combination of different technologies
• Improved economics of technology
• Liberalisation of rules and regulations about entry and adoption in the country, and
• Facilitative socio-political regime

Take any technology, whether it is electronic, print or information technologies, the growth has been very rapid in the last decade and a half. It will be seen in later part of the article how the individual technologies have grown during this period. The growth also contributes to expansion of the reach as well as access. It is also found that the growth is not necessarily restricted only to urban areas as it used to happen in the past. It spreads to smaller towns and rural areas also in reasonable time. Apart from the rapid growth, the change is also facilitated largely due to the increased user friendliness of the technology. For example, today's computers are much more user friendly than they were. The hardware is easily available and manageable in terms of size and the software is easy to learn.

The qualitative change also comes about due to the combination of different technologies. For example, there is a unique fusion of the information technology of computer, television, audio and even print medium as can be seen in the form of the Internet. One can read the ‘printed’ newspaper in an electronic form on the net. Television and radio are accessible through the Internet. The government has been creating a more facilitative regulatory regime. The emphasis is now on encouraging expansion and reducing the obstacles that come in the way. Some of the rules and regulations have been changing fast. In the earlier days, the change in the rules used to be very slow and tedious, but over the years the situation is improving. The socio-political atmosphere is more open and this greatly supports both the changes in rules and regulations as well as efficient implementation of the policies. The whole growth process has obviously become possible because the technologies have become more affordable and also because the society has started understanding the importance of new communication technologies.

The speed and type of changes have varied from technology to technology. For the purpose of analysis, the article looks at the following main categories:

1. The Broadcast Media: This will include radio, television and related media;
2. The Print Media; and
3. Telecommunications: This will include telephones, pagers, cellars, computers and the Internet.

It is seen that some of the characteristics traditionally associated with a particular medium are undergoing changes. The distinctions between different media are getting slowly blurred. It is no longer possible to say that a medium is strictly a print medium. For example, one can read the newspapers and magazines from anywhere in the world through the Internet. Obviously these newspapers and magazines are no longer ‘print media’. It also used to be believed that there is a certain amount of permanency or lack of permanency of the output of a medium. For example, it was believed that the radio and television programmes are non-permanent — as compared to the print medium - because once they are transmitted, it is not possible to have a re-look at them. However, the invention and ease of recording has changed the scenario. It is possible to record any television programme at any time and watch it one's convenience. Similarly, the print medium considered being more permanent than the ‘ethereal’ TV or radio services. However, if the newspaper is only on the Internet, it can no longer have that characteristic. Of course, it is always possible to download and take a hard copy and this again make it into a print or permanent medium. The biggest change, however, has come through the marriage of different technologies. The greatest contribution has come from the personal computer. Through a huge system of satellite communication, cable communication, fiber optics, telephone lines, the broadcast media, the print media, the Internet and the computer combined together have broken all the traditional boundaries between different media. The day probably is not far when the medium like television will become obsolete because most of its functions would have been taken over by the computer technology in the form of the Internet.

A. BROADCAST MEDIA

 All India Radio
Radio has a long history in India. The first radio broadcast was started in June 1923 as an amateur activity by the radio club. The Indian Broadcasting Company (IBC) was started on July 23, 1927. The IBC, however, had a short life. It went into liquidation on March 1, 1930. A month later on April 1, 1930, the Indian State Broadcasting Service under Department of Industries and Labour commenced on an experimental basis. The Department of Controller for Broadcasts was constituted in March 1935.

The experimental broadcasts saw a smooth transition into a regular service. The first news bulletin was broadcast on January 19, 1936. In June 1936, the Indian State Broadcasting Service became All India Radio. Central News Organisation came into existence in 1937 and in the same year All India Radio was shifted to the Department of Communication. The external services were started in 1939 and in 1941 All India Radio came under the Department of Information and Broadcasting. In 1946, All India Radio was brought under Department of Information and Arts and soon thereafter the department was called the Department of Information and Broadcasting.

In 1947 India attained independence from the British rule. The country was divided and consequently six radio stations remained with India and three went to Pakistan. The number of radio stations has gone up from a mere six in 1947 to 196 in 1998 that is a very significant growth. At the time of Independence there were approximately 2,75,000 radio sets in the country that went to more than 111 Million in 1995. At the present time the medium wave transmission covers 97 per cent of the population and nearly 90 per cent of the area.

Doordarshan
Doordarshan in 1998 had a huge network of 1034 terrestrial transmitters, several terrestrial and satellite channels; 46-programme producing centres and output of about 4000 hours of programming per week. There are over 65 million television households with estimated viewers exceeding 400 million. But this is a far cry from a very modest beginning made by Doordarshan way back in 1959. It started as an experimental station from Delhi. Only in 1965 the daily service including a news bulletin was started. Another major event to take place on the Indian television scenario was the conduct of Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) in 1975-76. This experiment conducted by Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) using the American ATS-6 Satellite has been acclaimed as one of the biggest successful socio-technical communication experiment in the world. The experiment was conducted in 2400 remote villages located in six different states of the country. It used satellite based television programmes to disseminated development support communication in areas like health, agriculture, education, social issues, general awareness etc. The needs of development and education were met through the benefits of modern technology. Remarkable improvement was in the knowledge levels of different subjects. Maximum was found amongst the less educated, women and more backward sections of the villages. This was also the precursor to the INSAT satellite system of today, which has contributed enormously to the exponential growth of television in the last two decades.

Operationalisation of INSAT satellite system of ISRO in 1982 enabled the massive expansion of Doordarshan in different parts of India. This enabled transmission of countrywide transmission of programmes including live programmes of common interest to different parts of the country. This era also marked the beginning of the colour transmission. The impetus for expansion was received from the fact that the 1982 Asian Games where held in New Delhi. Doordarshan today uses INSAT-2 series of satellites.

Another major development has been in the field of programmes received from a large number of foreign satellites. There are two main types of programmes: (1) English language channels which are predominantly made for a global especially the western societies; (2) Indian language channels which transmit programmes keeping in mind the Indian audiences and catering to different language groups. The reception and distribution of these programmes have contributed greatly to making the country’s television a truly global phenomenon. It is estimated that there are over 15 Million television households with satellite connectivity. A typical subscriber receives about 35 channels. A list of the major channels is given below:

Foreign Satellite Channels
1. English Language Channels

Sr. No.	Channel Name	Description
1	AXN-Action TV	Action movies and cartoons
2	BBC World	News and Current Affairs. With more focus on Asia
3	Cartoon Network	Cartoon series
4	Channel [V]	Pop music programmes. Recently, programmes of Hindi film and pop songs added
5	CNBC-ABN	News and Current Affairs with emphasis on India and other Asian Countries
6	CNN International	News and Current Affairs
7	Discovery Channel	Science, wildlife and environment
8	ESPN	Sports
9	MTV	Music Channel
10	National Geographic	Environmental awareness
11	Star Movies	Movies and Entertainment
12	Star News	News and current affairs channel for India
13	Star Sports	Sports. Separately Hindi commentary in some cases
14	Star World	Offers variety entertainment programmes in English
15	TNT	Hollywood Feature films

2. Indian Language Channels

16	ABNi	Business and commerce programmes
17	Asianet	Malayalam language entertainment programmes
18	ATN	Hindi language programmes mostly feature film based
19	BITV	Hindi music, film based, serials, information
20	Enadu TV	Telugu language entertainment programmes
21	GEC	Tamil programmes
22	Gemini	Telugu language entertainment programmes
23	Home TV	Hindi language entertainment programmes
24	Jain TV	Hindi language entertainment programmes
25	Music Asia	Music channel with major programming in Hindi
26	NEPC TV	Entertainment
27	Raj TV	Tamil programmes
28	Sony Entertainment TV	Hindi language entertainment/variety programmes
29	Star Plus	Offers variety entertainment programmes in Hindi and a few English programmes
30	Sun Movies	Tamil language movies
31	Sun Music	Tamil Film songs based programmes
32	Sun TV	Tamil language entertainment/information programmes, news
33	Surya TV	Malayalam language entertainment
34	TVi	News and current affairs - in Hindi and English
35	Udaya TV	Kannada language entertainment programmes
36	Vijay TV	Tamil language entertainment programmes
37	YES	Youth Entertainment Service
38	Zee Cinema	Hindi movies
39	Zee India TV	Hindi and some other Indian languages
40	Zee TV	Hindi language entertainment programmes with some socio/political, educational and daily evening news in Hindi

Cinema
India is the leader in the number of film productions. It produces the highest number of films in the world every year. India produces on an average about 800 feature films per year. In 1996 there were 12,867 Cinema halls with a seating capacity of 7.3 per 1000 population. The films are produced in many languages by a large number of individual producers and production houses. Indian cinema has yielded about 28,000 feature films and thousands of documentary short films so far. The first exposure to motion pictures, which India received, was in 1896, when the Lumiere Brothers' 'Cinematographe' unveiled six soundless short films in Mumbai (called Bombay). On May 3, 1913 at the Coronation Cinema, Bombay, Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, was responsible for the production of India's first fully indigenous silent feature film 'Raja Harishchandra' that heralded the birth of the Indian film industry. The first Indian talkie 'Alam Ara' produced by the Imperial Film Company and directed by Ardeshir Irani was released in 1931. The thirties are recognised as the decade of social protest in the history of Indian cinema. The film industry is the major entertainment industry. It also provides a very substantial support to the television channels. A large number of programmes are feature films based - songs, dances, and a good deal of prime time is taken up by full-length feature films.

B. PRINT MEDIA
Newspaper/Magazines
The newspaper industry has traditionally functioned as a free press in India. The freedom of expression and independence for print media has been ensured in the Indian constitution and the newspapers zealously guard this independence. It is of significance to note that there is no pre-censorship for newspapers. However, there are certain laws of the land, which apply to the newspaper industry. There is Press Council with quasi-judiciary powers.

The Gujarati Daily Bombay Samachar, started in 1822 AD, is the oldest existing newspaper in Asia. Apart from English and 18 principal languages enumerated in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution, newspapers are published in 81 other languages, mostly Indian languages and a few foreign languages. The total number of newspapers and periodicals as of December 1995 was 37,254. The total number of Daily Newspapers in India is 4,236.

C. TELECOMMUNICATIONS
The following technologies are included under telecommunications.

1. Telephones including pagers and cellular phones
2. Personal Computers
3. Internet

As can be seen from this list, it is a mix of some old technologies like telephone and some very recent services like pagers and cellular phones that were introduced in India in 1996. There is an amalgamation of some of the technologies and this creates a totally qualitatively different impact. For example, Internet is a combination of telephone and personal computers.

Telephone
Alexander Graham Bell of the USA invented the perfected version of the Telephone in 1876. Telephones in India are under the purview of Department of Telecommunications (DoT) in the Ministry of Communications. It is the sole agency responsible for telephone network in the country. When the current phase of liberalisation began in 1991, one of the first infrastructural fields to be benefited was that of the telephones. A national telecom policy came into being which visualised telephones on demand — it can easily take 3 to 5 years to get a telephone connection in India - and an increase in telephone density to 3 per 100 persons as against 1 per 100. It was realised that the Department of Telecommunications did not have the resources to meet the objective of 16 Million telephone lines. One of the solutions was to encourage privatisation of the telecom sector. There were, however, several teething problems. While the tender for mobile and paging receivers in the four metropolitan cities managed to get through to the implementation stage without too many major hurdles, the main part of privatisation, in terms of basic services and cellular services beyond the four metro cities ran in to trouble. The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) envisaged independent of DoT was not in place, which left DoT to set up the rules for the operators, though it was itself competing with the private operators. Many of these hurdles have been overcome and there is a rapid growth of the cellular phone and pager services by private companies in several cities. The value-added services have also been on the increase.

It is estimated that there are approximately 12 Million telephone connections in the country. Out of this, about 3 Million are public telephones. The ratio of telephone per thousand populations works to about 12.50. There are plans for providing at least one telephone in each village numbering over 600,000. The idea is really to increase the penetration at a community level that is telephone at the village level accessible to all rather than attempting to provide individual connectivity. This would be done through state intervention rather than leaving it to the market forces. This one telephone will be like a public telephone to be shared by the whole village. Of course those who can afford will be able to have their personal phones.

Pagers/Cellular
It is estimated that there are about 700,000 pager subscribers. The paging services are completely private though they have to use the government’s telephone lines. There are eight private cell phone companies and ten pager companies. According to the Global Wireless, November-December 1998 Vol.1 No.6, as on June 1, 1998 there were 9,28,418 cellular subscribers in the four metros and 15 telecom circles. By the time cellular companies complete three years of operations towards the end of 1998, the country is expected to have one million subscribers. The Paging subscriber status in India is 6,96,800 as of April 1, 1998.

The Indian Government has realised that satellite enabled mass mobile service is the next development in telecommunications that will benefit the user. Inmarsat and DoT are conducting a pilot project for satellite-based telephones in remote areas of the country. Global, Mobile and Personal Services (GMPS) will define telecoms in the 21st century. Cell phone users want to use their phones wherever they go; operators respond by competing to add more territory to their services. Roaming services allow cellular customers to make calls outside their home network. In Feb. '98 the Department of Telecommunications permitted cellular operators to offer their subscribers automatic national and international roaming facility. This facility will allow subscribers to make and receive calls on a single number even when they are not in their home location register. There are very few takers for the roaming facilities in radio paging.

Computers
One of the most visible impacts in the recent times is that of the personal computers. It started making an appearance in offices and homes about a decade ago. However, in the beginning the number was very small because of the high costs and less of user-friendliness of the earlier hardware and less developed infrastructure. But over the years the prices have come down drastically and simultaneously the PC literacy has increased. According to 1996 estimates there were over 1.4 Million PCs. This comes to 0.51 units per 1000 population. However, according to the study carried out by Indian Market Research Bureau, PC penetration per 1000 persons has gone upto 1.8 and by the end of 1998 it is expected to rise to 2.3. The growth has been very fast since then and the curve clearly indicates a very rapid growth. A very widespread efficient infrastructure has developed. A large pool of manpower and industrial base —for hardware and software- has developed assuring further rapid growth.

Internet
It is estimated that there are about 100,000 Internet subscribers as of now. There were two major Internet service providers in India: 1. VSNL: 45,000 and 2. ERNET: 50,000. Several private service providers have entered the market and the subscribers are growing at a very fast rate. Global interest in the Internet has had its impact in India as well. Originally, about 50,000 users of the network, exclusive to educational and research institutions, were the only ones connected. VSNL, which controls all international telecommunications in India, started offering internal connections to private individuals and companies in 1995. The initial response was modest as the tariff was high and only four cities were connected. VSNL decreased the tariff subsequently and added more cities to the network and the number of connections has gone upto 45,000. However, even with connections as few as these, the network is badly clogged because the number telephone lines that VSNL has had access to locally, is limited.